|
'Great Tours of London, Britain & Ireland' A brief history of the British Isles* * The British Islands includes England, Wales, Scotland and all of Ireland - from the historic/geographic aspect, not political. AN INTRODUCTION Many teachers and students of British/Irish history tend to begin with the Battle of Hastings in 1066, which is to overlook the contribution of some major earlier events, so here is a brief history beginning with the first arrival of man to these islands. Prehistoric Britain This period covers the arrival of the first humans to Great Britain and Ireland to the beginning of our recorded or written history. Prehistory is commonly divided chronologically into distinct periods, based on the development of tools from stone (stone age) to bronze (bronze age) to iron (iron age) as well as changes in culture and climate. Having said that, it must be borne in mind that the definite dates are uncertain with archeology updating our knowledge as the science improves and the number of sites grows. These changes between the periods were also gradual, and usually differ from those of mainland or continental Europe. The Palaeolithic (old stone age) Britain is the period of the earliest known occupation by man. This period - massive compared to later ones - witnessed major changes in the environment, and there were a number of glacial and interglacial periods that would have impacted on human settlement. Scientists do not agree on the exact timing for this far-off period either; artefacts are few and far between, adding to the problem. Neverthless, there is general agreement that these early Britons would have been small bands of hunter-gatherers who roamed through northern Europe following the herds of animals for food and clothing, whilst supplementing their larders by fishing. Lower Palaeolithic (up to 250,000 years ago)There is evidence from bones and tools discovered in coastal deposits in eastern England that a species of Homo was present in what is now Britain around 700,000 years ago. At this time, southern and eastern Britain were linked to continental Europe by a wide land bridge allowing humans to move freely. The current position of the English Channel was then a large river flowing westwards and fed by tributaries that would later become England's river Thames and France's river Seine. The extreme cold of the following stage is likely to have driven all humans away from Britain and they do not seem to re-appear until the ice receded during a warmer period around 300,000 until 200,000 years ago. Flint tools found from this period give us some indication of the activities. Middle Palaeolithic (from around 180,000 to 40,000 years ago)From 180,000 to 60,000 there is no evidence of human occupation in Britain. From 60,000 to 40,000 Britain was grassland occupied by giant deer and horse, Woolly Mammoths, rhino and carnivores. Neanderthal Man had arrived in Britain by around 40,000 years ago. Upper Palaeolithic (around 40,000 – 10,000 years ago)This period is often divided into three subperiods: the Early Upper Palaeolithic (before the main glacial period), the Middle Upper Palaeolithic (the main glacial period) and the Late Upper Palaeolithic (after the main glacial period). Evidence of Neanderthal occupation of Britain is limited and by 30,000 BC the first signs of modern human (Homo sapiens) activity are known. A final ice age covered Britain between around 70,000 and 10,000 years ago with an extreme cold period between 22,000 and 13,000 years ago. This cold period may have driven humans south and out of Britain completely again, possibly to a refuge in Southern France and Iberia. Sites like the Cheddar Caves dated at 12,000 BC appear to prove that humans returned to Britain towards the end of this ice age, in a warm period, although further extremes of cold just before the final thaw may have caused them to leave again and then return repeatedly. The environment during this ice age period would have been a largely treeless tundra, gradually giving way to birch trees, shrubs and grasses as the climate became warmer. The first signs of a culture are evidenced by the discovery and dating of flints with leaf-shaped points probably used as arrowheads. There were more refined flint tools too, plus those made from animal horns, bone, antler, shell, amber, animal teeth, and mammoth ivory. Jewellery, not just tools appear from these peoples. From 12,700 to 11,500 years ago the climate became cooler and dryer, in what is known as the Younger Dryas period. Food animal populations seem to have declined although woodland coverage expanded. Tool manufacture in the Final Upper Palaeolithic revolved around smaller flints but bone and antler work became less common. Typically there are parallel-sided flint blades known as "Cheddar Points". There are scrapers, some of which are annoted with what may be calendars. However, the number of known sites is now much larger and more widespread. Roman Britain: Brittania was the most northerly part of the great Roman Empire. It included all present day England and Wales, but excluded Ireland (Hiberni) and Scotland (Caledonii). The early Britons finally yielded to the might of Rome in the form of an army under the banner of Emperor Claudius which annexed the Brittanic Islands in 43AD and established better trade, efficient administration, new roads and new towns. Incidentally, every town with a name ending in 'chester' or 'caster' or 'cester' was once a Roman town. For example Doncaster, Dorchester and Cirencester. The main Roman towns were: Londinium (London), Verulamium (St Albans), Corinium (Cirencester), Dubris (Dover), Lindum (Lincoln), Eboracum (York), Dunelm (Durham), Deva (Chester), Calleva (Silchester), Venta (Winchester), Ratae (Leicester), Glevum (Gloucester), Camulodunum (Colchester - the first Roman capital, before Londinium). There followed almost 370 years of Roman rule, until in 410 AD the final legion was recalled to defend Rome in spite of some British pleas not to be abandoned. So the Romano-British settlers and their slaves were left undefended from further invasions and occupation and a new largely 'dark' or un-reported period was to follow..
In 1035 Canute died and the throne was usurped by Harold Harefoot from Harthacanute the rightful heir. Then in 1040 Harold died and Harthacanute succeeded, but dying soon after in 1042. Return of Saxon Rule On Harthacanute's death Eathelred II's son, Edward (the Confessor), who had grown up in Normandy succeeded him and for a while the Saxons were back in charge. In 1045 Edward married Edith, daughter of Godwine Earl of Wessex. In 1051 Edward banished Godwine and his family and welcomed William Duke of Normandy to his court. William won a promise that he should be named as Edward's successor, a move which greatly angered the mainly Saxon nobility. Harold Godwine returned to England the following year and was restored to the Earldom of Wessex. In 1052 Edward the Confessor began construction of Westminster Abbey. The following year Godwine died and his son Harold succeeded as Earl of Wessex and became principal advisor to the king. It is believed by many chroniclers that in 1064 Harold was shipwrecked off the Normandy coast and was taken to the court of Duke William of Normandy. He stayed some time, hunted and even fought alongside William and on one infamous occasion swore an oath to support any future claim by William to the English throne. However, in January 1066, just days after the late December consecration of his new Abbey church Edward died. Harold, Earl of Wessex claimed the throne - a claim which was widely supported in Anglo-Saxon England, but which brought an immediate response from William of Normandy! We’ve seen 42 kings and queens since the battle of Hastings in 1066, when William I, Duke of Normandy, the last ‘foreign’ invader successfully gained the English throne. To remember their correct order, some history students used to learn a little rhyme - If you'd like to see it go here. THE NORMAN DYNASTY 1066-1154 TOP King William I -1087. The Duke of Normandy, as the last foreigner to successfully invade and conquer he is also known as 'the conqueror'. Having defeated the Saxon king, Harold at the battle of Hastings on 14th October 1066 William was crowned in Westminster Abbey on 25th December 1066, as have all crowned monarhs ever since. A castle-builder, strong, but cruel, he organised the first real census for taxing his new people - 'the Domesday book'- it can be seen at the Public Records Office, London. William was succeeded by his 2nd son, William II, nickname 'Rufus' on account of his red hair. A cruel tyrant, but a good general, he defeated the Scots, the Welsh, and the Norman Barons who supported his older brother. (Duke of Normandy - Robert). When 'accidentally' shot with an arrow whilst hunting in the New Forest, his throne passed to the third son of the conqueror, Henry I, nicknamed 'Beauclerk'. As strong as his father, but just too, he began his reign by issuing a charter to uphold the rights of Englishmen, healed old quarrels between Anglo-Saxons & Normans and married an Anglo-Saxon princess. He tried to increase his lands by marrying his daughter, Matilda, to Geoffrey le Bel, Count of Anjou, who wore a sprig of broom or plantagée in his helmet - hence Plantagenet. When Henry’s son was drowned, Matilda and her husband inherited a vast empire in England and France, but the English barons refused to be ruled by a woman, so they supported Henry’s nephew's claim to the throne. Stephen's reign was marked by constant fighting of Matilda for the crown, whilst the barons did as they wished. The strong goverment of William 1st and his sons faded away. There was chaos and anarchy until an agreement was finally reached: Stephen would reign, but when he died the crown would pass to Matilda’s son, Henry. Stephen's tomb was not discovered until 1965! THE PLANTAGANETS 1154-1485 TOP King Henry II - the first Plantaganet king of England looked like his great uncle Rufus; red complexion, short, thick-set, and energetic. He brought the barons under control, then made improvements to the law. Innocence or guilt was still being ‘proved’ by various cruel and archaic ‘trials’. Henry introduced the 12 man jury system for deciding innocence or guilt. Henry also came into conflict with the church, whose powers were great. He attempted to limit them by choosing his own man, Thomas Becket, for Archbishop of Canterbury. However, the ensuing arguments between the old friends resulted in Becket’s murder at the hands of 4 of the king’s knights, following a careless remark of the King, like “can no one avenge me of this turbulent priest..”. Later, the king walked barefoot through the city of Canterbury to show public penitence, before allowing himself to be scourged (whipped) by the priests. The following year he re-conquered Ireland and forced the Irish princes to swear loyalty to him. Meanwhile, the country had grown rich, but his sons were constantly fighting for power and were threatening rebellion against him. He was old and tired. When he heard that his youngest, and favourite son, John, had joined the rebellion, he said, ‘I care for nothing in the world now’, and died the next day.
The most capable king since Henry II, Edward I was a tall man, hence the nickname, ‘Longshanks’. Intelligent, good-looking and industrious, though very unpopular with the Scots and Welsh! His son Edward became the first English-born Prince of Wales, starting the tradition that the eldest son of the Monarch of Great Britain becomes fully invested with the title when he attains his majority. (Normally at 21 years of age) The ceremony usually takes place in Caernarfon Castle, North Wales. Strong Edward was succeeded by an equally handsome, but weak son, King Edward II. Failing dismally against the ‘old enemy’, Scotland, the English army under Edward II was heavily defeated at the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314. This, plus his dalliance with male ‘favourites’, led to his unpopularity with the powerful leaders of the day. Eventually, his wife and her lover gained support and forced him to relinquish the throne. He was imprisoned in Berkeley castle and starved, but thanks to a strong constitution stubbornly refused to die. The problem was solved, according to legend, when he was horribly murdered with a red hot poker, or similar object, having obstinately refused to die of neglect. It's said that it was used in such a way as to leave no outwardly visible evidence of the foul deed! Ouch! King Edward III succeeded to the throne after the deposition of his father by his mother, Queen Isabella, and her lover, Roger Mortimer. In 1330 he took Mortimer prisoner at Nottingham Castle, executing him at Tyburn, London the next month. He then put his mother under house arrest and ruled alone. The Black Death wiped out half the population in 1348. By claiming the French crown through his mother, he started the Hundred Years War with France and in 1346 a great victory was won at Crecy. In his History of the English Speaking Peoples, Sir Winston Churchill wrote that the battle of Crecy ranked with Blenheim, Waterloo and the final advance in the summer of the last year of The Great War (1914-1918), ‘as one of the four supreme achievements of the British Army’. There is no doubt that the power and accuracy of the ‘English’ (sic. Welsh) longbow was infinitely superior to the crossbow used by the French and Genoese archers. During his long reign the King encouraged the woollen industry - prized for its quality on the continent. Edward's fourth son, John of Gaunt ran the government at the end, when the King became feeble and fell under the influence of his greedy mistress, Alice Perrers. One of John of Gaunt's descendants, Henry Tudor would begin the House of Tudor a couple of centuries later. King Richard II was the grandson of Edward I, son of the Black Prince, and Joan of Kent. The Black Prince was Edward III’s son and heir, but had died the year before his father. A talented and precocious boy, Richard saved the day during the Peasants Revolt of 1381, by showing courage and confronting the rebels outside London. The confrontation led to the death at the hands of London’s Lord Mayor of Wat Tyler the rebel leader, but the young king persuaded the mob to go peacefully to their homes. Later, his policies grew erratic and his popularity waned. A rebellion led by his cousin, Henry, Duke of Lancaster, son of John of Gaunt, the fourth son of Edward III, brought his abdication and ultimate death in Pontefract Castle. King Henry IV had claimed his crown after forcing his cousin’s abdication by ‘right of blood line from Henry III’, and was accepted by Parliament. His position was soon consolidated by pursuing sound practical government. Having used the excuse that Richard II was a tyrant for taking the crown, Henry could not act like a tyrant himself, and allowed the influence of Parliament to grow. Having seen the problems caused by Edward III’s many, powerful sons, he preferred a strong Parliament to strong Barons. He had been helped to gain the throne by the great Duke of Northumberland and his son, Henry Hotspur. These two felt that they had not been properly rewarded for their aid and turned against King Henry. They found a powerful ally in Owen Glendower, a descendant of the Welsh princes who saw a chance to rid Wales of English domination. However, Hotspur was killed in the Battle of Shrewsbury, and Glendower’s threat from Wales was gradually broken. King Henry V, after a rather wild youth succeeded his father, Henry IV. As a boy he loved outdoor activities and could ride, swim, bend a bow and hunt by the age of ten. He was also a fine scholar and an accomplished musician. Once King he proved himself a shrewd tactician - both militarily and politically - merciful to his enemies and devoutly religious. He renewed the Hundred Years War with France, showing great generalship and defeating the French at the Battle of Agincourt on 25th October, 1415. He lost only 113 (some reports say 400) English soldiers, compared with French losses of ‘5,000 French gentlemen of quality’. The subsequent peace treaty gave him the French King Charles VI’s daughter, Catherine De Valois* as wife. The king also acknowledged his new son-in-law as his heir to the throne of France. Sadly this ambition was not achieved because he died of dysentery at Vincennes in 1422, his father-in-law dying the next month. Henry's 10 month old son Henry, therefore inherited both crowns, but later proved unable to hold on to his French possessions. (*Through her subsequent marriage to Owain Tudur (Welsh spelling) Catherine is the grandmother of Henry VII - Henry Tudor. King Henry VI was only 3 months old when he became king. Gentle, religious and a little feeble minded, the country was ruled by his uncles and the war in France went badly, as Joan of Arc led her people to victory. At home, the great nobles raised private armies, and the country became lawless. Henry’s wife, Margaret of Anjou dominated him, and at one time he became too sick to govern. Parliament appointed the Duke of York, Prince Edward as Protector of the Kingdom. On Henry’s recovery, his wife persuaded him to dismiss the Duke of York and the 'War of The Roses' began. The two sides, Yorkists and Lancastrians fought for the throne. (According to legend, Lancastrians wore a red rose, Yorkists a white one). The fighting was really between the armies of the great nobles, ordinary people were not much involved. Generally the battles were small scale, nevertheless, between periods of peace, the war lasted 30 years. The Duke of York was killed in 1460, but the next year his son Edward beat the Lancastrians, with help from the powerful Earl of Warwick, ‘the King-maker’. Parliament proclaimed Edward King and Henry went to the Tower as a prisoner. His throne was given back briefly in 1470, but finally lost with his imprisonment following a further defeat against Edward at the battle of Barnet in 1471. He was murdered at the Tower shortly after. King Edward IV left the government to the Earl of Warwick, and things ran smoothly. But a bad marriage, for love, to an ambitious family, ensured the enmity of Warwick. Warwick changed sides, attacked with help from Margaret of Anjou, Henry’s queen, who invaded from France. Edward had to flee and Henry was briefly made king, but Edward returned, killed Warwick at the battle of Barnet in 1471, and Henry was again sent to the tower where he died in suspicious circumstances. It’s known that Richard, Duke of Gloucester and future King Richard III, was at the Tower that day and could well have been implicated in Henry’s death. He certainly showed great zeal in fighting for his older brother Edward’s claim to the throne and was the kind of man who would stop at nothing. He was also later implicated in the disappearance of his brother’s sons, Edward and Richard, ‘the Princes at the Tower’. (See Edward V). The rest of Edward’s reign was peaceful and trade began to increase steadily. He died at age 42, and so England had another child king again. King Edward V, whose uncle Richard, Duke of Gloucester was appointed Lord Protector, placing the young King Edward and later his younger brother Richard in the Tower, for their ‘safety’. They disappeared, after their uncle had claimed the crown himself. Their bodies were not found until 1674 and then buried in Westminster Abbey. (The bones were given a detailed forensic examination in 1933). No-one has proven that Richard ordered their deaths, but it is accepted by most historians that he probably did, fearing for the security of his reign whilst they lived. The tower where they were believed to have been lodged, the Garden tower, now acquired a new name; 'the Bloody Tower'. Enter the last Plantagenet - King Richard III. Not loved by history, Richard is remembered nevertheless for having given some good government, introduction of fairer laws, including the bail law, and was highly popular in the north country, where he had spent a large part of his brother’s reign acting as steward for him. He was defeated, by the Lancastrian pretender, Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond at the Battle of Bosworth Field, in 1485. He fought bravely against overwhelming odds, when a large part of his army deserted to the enemy, and was killed. THE TUDOR PERIOD - 1485 - 1603 TOP King Henry VII although the victor at the Battle of Bosworth, really had no legitimate claim to the crown. On his father’s side, he was descended from the Valois kings of France, through his grandmother, Catherine De Valois, who had secretly married her handsome Welsh squire, Owen Tudor, after the death of her husband, King Henry V. (It’s likely that much of their courtship took place at Leeds Castle in Kent, away from the larger and more public Royal Court in London). After his victory at the Battle of Bosworth, Henry strengthened his hold on the crown by marrying the most eligible lady on the Yorkist side, Princess Elizabeth of York, daughter of King Edward IV and sister of the tragic boys King Edward V and brother Richard. Henry was careful to keep peace, grow the economy and enrich the royal coffers. The successor, King Henry VIII was the second son and a very different character to the father. Good looking, athletic, musical, intelligent, highly educated. As second son, he did not expect to become king. He was hoping for a career in the church and could possibly have become a senior Bishop - being of Royal blood he would quickly have held high office. However, his older brother Arthur died leaving a young widow, Catherine of Aragon. No time was lost in marrying Catherine to her brother-in-law, young Henry. Henry soon changed, becoming much more serious about dynastic and state matters. He became the first head of the Church of England after a break with the papacy and Excommunication over the question of his ‘divorce’ from Catherine. The marriage had failed to yield any sons, just one surviving child, a daughter, Mary. The next marriage to Anne Boleyn saw a repetition of events, a daughter, Elizabeth. Poor Anne, who had made enemies at court, was accused, probably falsely, of having relationships with other men. She was tried, convicted and beheaded. The third marriage, to Jane Seymour, produced a son, but Jane died within 10 days of the birth from complications, probably septicaemia, the most common cause of death in childbirth in those times. Henry reluctantly agreed to marry again - the baby was weak and not expected to live - but the 4th marriage, to Anne of Cleves, was a disaster. The king refused to stay with his new Queen, and had to be coerced into going through with the ceremony itself! A quick divorce settlement, which included Anne Boleyn’s family home, Hever Castle, saw the king free to marry again. The old fool fell head-over-heels for a pretty, witty young thing, Catherine Howard, who did cheat on him, got caught and yes, you guessed it .. lost her head! The final marriage was peaceful. A more sensible, mature lady, a third Catherine - Parr, saw out the king’s last years. His will instructed that he be buried with Jane and Catherine; trouble is, Catherine re-married after the old tyrant’s death, and is buried at Sudeley Castle her last husband's place! (The best laid plans, etc.) In fact Catherine's third husband was Thomas Seymour - she'd loved him before the King asked her to marry and so had had to wait a while - but sadly she died in childbirth less than a year into the new marriage. And the name Seymour? Yes, he was one of the brothers of Jane Seymour - Henry VIII's third wife, his 'much-loved Jane'! What an incestuous lot they were at the Court in those days ... Young children today remember the fate of Henry's 6 wives thus: ‘divorced, beheaded, died; divorced, beheaded, survived’. King Edward VI was a bright, sensitive youth, who suffered from consumption (TB) and other life-threatening conditions. Contrary to contemporary medical expectations, the boy did survive his father, becoming King aged 10. He vigorously supported the Protestant Reformation begun during the final years of his father’s reign. When aged 15 and his death imminent, he was persuaded by ambitious men like the Duke of Northumberland, the Lord Protector, to change his father’s will and leave his crown to his cousin Lady Jane Grey. Lady Jane Grey’s attempt to claim the crown only lasted 9 days and she was then held at the Tower. Queen Mary I, also referred to as Mary Tudor to prevent confusion with Mary Stuart, Queen of the Scots, was a devout Roman Catholic and determined to restore the ‘old religion’ at any cost. These were bloody times. More than 300 Protestant priests and others were burned at the stake for heresy at Smithfield in London, during her brief five year reign. She made a grave error of judgement in trying to impose on the people her marriage to the hated Roman Catholic King of Spain, Philip II. A rebellion followed, led by the parents of the two young usurpers which led to their death warrant being signed. Jane Grey and her young husband were executed on the same day. Jane was just 16. Philip came briefly to England, quickly tired of her, and returned to Spain. She died, broken hearted by her failed marriage, her unpopularity and the loss of England’s last French territory, Calais, in 1558. Before she died, she said, “if you open my body when I am dead, you will find ‘Calais’ written on my heart”. Time for a hero! Queen Elizabeth I was popularly known as Good Queen Bess, or the Virgin Queen. For 45 years this indomitable lady fended off marriage suitors, preserved her independence, and thereby that of her people, kept peace (mainly) and did much to encourage the growth of trade which would inevitably lead on to the British Empire. (And a fair bit of Piracy - but that's another story!). Elizabeth encouraged a renaissance in literature, art and building, great men like Marlowe, Spencer, and Shakespeare resulting. In commerce and colonial ambitions Elizabethan England saw the founding of colonies in Virginia, the growth of trading enterprises like the Royal Exchange, the Baltic Company, the Virginia Company and the increasing power of the English Navy whose famous captains Raleigh, Drake, Hawkins and others achieved the defeat of the great Spanish Armada in 1588. When she died, so ended the Tudor dynasty, but the seeds of Empire had been firmly planted. It was her cousin and rival, Mary, Queen of Scots’ son James, who succeeded her. He was already King of Scotland (King James VI), awaiting the summons to London which would give the House of Stuart dominion over Scotland and England. THE STUART PERIOD - 1603 -1688 and 1702 -1714 TOP King James I - England's first King James, Scotland's sixth - was an intellectual, homosexual, witty and generally capable king. Unfortunately though, despite being an intelligent man he continually exercised poor judgement in his appointment of Ministers. One important and positive act during the early years of his reign, however was to order the leading churchmen of the day to participate in a conference at Hampton Court Palace. The purp[ose of the conference was to thrash out a final translation of the Bible from Latin to English, which would be approved by all. The result was The Authorised King James Bible. Indeed, James liked to participate in many of the debates himself. Despite this beginning, his installation of favourites from the Scottish court caused some stress and unpopularity, and led to an attempt at assassination. The plan was to kill the King, members of his family and the majority of the members of Parliament who supported him, by blowing up the debating chamber from the cellars underneath when the State Opening of Parliament - by the King - was to take place following the summer recess. Most of the plotters were Catholic, but not all. Henceforth, it was to be known as ‘the gunpowder plot’. This was a time of active suppression of the Catholic faith, and the plotters had some justification for their anger, but such a radical solution was not approved of, even against an unpopular King like James, so when discovered, the plotters were tried, convicted and cruelly publicly executed. The unfortunate man left to guard the gunpowder overnight before setting the charges, was Guy (or Guido) Fawkes. He was caught red-handed and after ‘examination’ in the Tower, revealed other co-conspirators. His signature before and after ‘examination’ reveal the extent of his suffering. It was reported that he had to be helped to the scaffold, as he had been ‘racked’ so much he could no longer walk. Every 5th November, the children burn a ‘Guy’ effigy on bonfires. They party with family and friends, and sing ‘Remember, Remember, The Fifth Of November. Gunpowder, Treason and Plot. Remember, Remember the Fifth of November, 'tis a date should ne'er be forgot'. Another, somewhat shameful episode in James’ reign, was the treatment of that old Tudor-time hero, Sir Walter Raleigh. After 13 years imprisonment at the Tower on charges of treason, Raleigh was released to lead an expedition of the Orinoco River, South America, to find the ‘lost’ treasure of the Incas, which he was convinced lay waiting to be discovered. James became a major investor in the scheme. It all went badly wrong, most of the men succumbed to disease, ships were lost, and to make matters worse the Spanish were offended by an attack on one of their ships. The bedraggled remnants returned home to face criticism from both investors and diplomats with the result that Raleigh’s death sentence for the original offence was restored and duly carried out. On the credit side - in addition to ending the controversy over the English Bible, some of Shakespeare’s best work was written during his reign, and Jamestown, the colony in Virginia was founded. King Charles I's reign was a time of great political upheaval. Take a stubborn, somewhat arrogant King, believing in the Divine Right of Kings, and add in growing Parliamentary strength and you have a recipe for disaster. The English Civil War was caused by the King’s inability to effectively introduce taxes without Parliament. When a furious house decided to try, condemn and execute the king’s chief minister, Lord Strafford, the king decided to arrest the leaders of Parliament. He led soldiers into the House of Commons chamber, but the members in question had been warned and had already left. The speaker made a statement which has gone down in Parliamentary history: “Sire, I have neither eyes to see nor tongue to speak in this house, except as directed by this house”. “I see the birds have flown!”, said Charles. The frustrated King then left but later raised the Royal Standard and the English Civil War began. After initial successes, the Royalists were eventually defeated in 1645 at the battle of Naseby, by a better trained ‘Model Army’ led by a member of Parliament, Oliver Cromwell and his Generals. Although taken prisoner by the Parliamentarian forces, the king would not submit to them and the war started up again. He was tried and convicted in a somewhat shambolic show trial in Westminster Hall. On 3oth January, 1649, the king was executed, outside Banqueting House, located in the street now called Whitehall. There was no great jubilation after the event; people returned quietly to their homes and began to contemplate a new society, dominated by the Puritans. Cromwell was a middle-aged country squire at the beginning of the Civil War. He was a tall, energetic man who proved to be a great leader of men and a strong statesman. As a puritan he believed that all his successes were due to God. It is fair to say that the fun went out of life during the ‘Inter-Regnum’. The theatres were closed, Shakespeare’s plays banned, Christmas abolished so that there was even less religious tolerance of non-conformists than before. However, the death of the King did not end the Parliamentary squabbles; if anything, they got worse. Cromwell, in frustration, dissolved it and took for himself the title of Lord Protector. Cromwell called two more Parliaments which were as troublesome to him as they had been to the late King. His strength lay in his control of the army and his abilities as a leader. He successfully waged naval war on the Dutch and twice easily suppressed Scottish and Irish rebellions with such brutality that his name is still remembered with bitter anger by the Irish. At home he had good ideas for reform, cut short by his death in 1658. His son, Richard ('Tumbledown Dick') Cromwell was a shadow of the father and eventually resigned his post leaving the way clear for a call for the restoration of the monarchy, and the return of happier times. King Charles II was known popularly as ‘Old Rowley’ and ‘The Merry Monarch’, and was a very different character. He had tried to re-gain the crown in 1651, been defeated at the battle of Worcester, and had to escape the clutches of the parliamentarian forces by disguising himself and relying on many royalist sympathisers who smuggled him abroad. (On one occasion, he was almost captured by pursuing roundheads and hid successfully in an old hollow oak tree; hence, the ‘Royal Oak’ on some inn signs). He had lived a quiet and relatively impoverished life in France and Flanders until the call came for his return. On his return he swore ‘never to go on my travels again’, and never did! Revenge for his father’s death was not a major consideration, although the bodies of both Cromwell and his General, Ireton, were dug up from Westminster Abbey and hung in chains at Tyburn! Many of the ‘Regicides’, who had signed his father’s execution warrant were pardoned, though some were executed. A few were even given new positions in government. Nevertheless, this agreeable and witty man managed to hold together a country which had become disunited and impoverished by years of ineffective government during his father’s reign and the ‘Commonwealth’ of Parliament. Despite showing by his many mistresses that ‘Old Rowley’ was well up to the production of heirs, his legitimate wife, Catherine of Braganza, was sadly unable to bear him children. Unlike his predecessor, Henry VIII, however, he continued to support his wife against demands from some quarters that he divorce her and re-marry. When Charles died, to the great sadness of most of his subjects, a ‘coup’ was attempted by his illegitimate, albeit protestant and popular son, the Duke of Monmouth. The up-rising was brutally quelled, the ring-leaders being hung-drawn and quartered, and many simple, naive west-country farm workers were tried in 'the bloody-assizes’ of Judge Jeffries, paying with their lives. Monmouth himself ‘went to the block’ despite pleas for clemency to his uncle James, whom he had tried to replace. Incidentally, there are 25 Dukes in Great Britain and 4 of them are direct descendants of Charles II - from the ‘wrong side of the blanket’! With the reign of King James II, the Kingdom again found itself in the hands of a monarch of the Roman Catholic faith. A stubborn, undiplomatic man, who, just like his father Charles I, ended up alienating many of his subjects. A deputation was sent to Holland to negotiate an invasion led by William, James nephew and son-in-law to take James off the throne. James left without a fight, and the throne being 'vacant' Parliament legitimised William and Mary as joint monarchs with a new Parliamentary law, 'The Bill of Rights'. This bloodless event is known as "The Glorious Revolution". James made one last ditch attempt at regaining his throne, via the back door through Ireland. The resultant battle, (of the Boyne), was won by William and his Protestant supporters, the annual anniversary commemorations by the Protestants in Northern Ireland are still a cause of complaint from the Catholics in these present troubled times. THE HOUSE OF ORANGE -1688 - 1702 TOP King William III and Queen Mary II have the unique 'priviledge' of being the only joint monarchs in British history. As eldest of James II's two daughters by Anne Hyde, Mary was proclaimed Queen jointly with her husband, William of Orange, after the flight of her father. She died of smallpox at Hampton Court Palace in 1694. William III's joint reign with his wife Mary was formally acknowledged and legitimised along with the other liberties won by the Glorious Revolution, in the 1689 Bill of Rights referred to earlier. Much of the King's political concern was his war with Louis XIV of France which was finally ended at the Peace of Ryswick in 1697. Following a fall from his horse whilst riding at Hampton court, William died from a complicated collar bone fracture and pneumonia. The horse was believed to have stumbled on a molehill, which cheered the many Catholics in the North, Scotland and Ireland, and a new secret Jacobite toast was born - glasses were raised, "to the wee gentleman in the black velvet jacket." When sister-in-law succeeded as Queen Anne we have the first Sovereign to reign over the United Kingdom of England and Scotland, the two kingdoms having been united by the Act of Union of 1707. Others made her reign, although short, a notable one: Marlborough's victories over the French in the Wars of the Spanish Succession; the scientific developments of Newton; the architecture of Wren and Vanbrugh, the literary works of Pope, Swift, Steele, Defoe and Addison. She established Queen Anne's bounty to improve church finances. By her consort, the dull and rather simple, Prince George of Denmark, she had 17 pregnancies, none who survived birth survived infancy. Only the young Duke of Gloucester lived to his 11th year. (Charles II said of Prince George, "I've tried him drunk and I've tried him sober, but there's nothing in him."). THE HANOVERIAN PERIOD - 1714 - 1837 King George I was the great grandson of James I through his daughter, Elizabeth of Bohemia, the Winter Queen. The Act of Settlement of 1701 settled the succession on George's mother, Sophia, Electress of Hanover, to guarantee the Protestant succession, despite the closer claim of James II's son, James (the Old Pretender), who'd adhered to the Catholic religion. Unable to speak English, George left affairs in the hands of his ministers, and the system of Cabinet government under a Prime Minister evolved. A Jacobite uprising in 1715 was defeated. King George II let Sir Robert Walpole continue in his role as Prime Minister until Walpole's political defeat in 1742. George was the last King to personally lead his troops into battle at the battle of Dettingen in 1743. The second Jacobite uprising, this time led by the Old Pretender's son, (Bonnie) Prince 'Charlie', was defeated, brutally in 1745 at the battle of Culloden, by the King's son, William Duke of Cumberland, henceforth to be known as 'Butcher Cumberland'. George II's grandson King George III succeeded at a time of cultural renaissance; 'the age of reason'. People tend to remember this period for the loss of the American Colonies, but it also saw the expansion of British power in India. and the growth of British influence globally. Additionally, the period saw the upheaval of the great agrarian and industrial revolutions at home. It was an age of developments in other fields: science, exploration, chemistry, philosophy and invention under such figures as Henry Cavendish who discovered hydrogen and the chemical composition of water, James Cook's voyages to Australia and New Zealand, Joseph Priestley who shared with Carl Scheele the discovery of oxygen, Adam Smith the political economist who wrote The Wealth of Nations, and Sir Humphrey Davy inventor of the miner's safety lamp which still carries his name. Son George's reign as both Regent and later, King George IV was a low ebb in Royal popularity but a time of military supremacy with victories over the Americans and French, culminating in the defeat of Bonaparte at Waterloo on 18th June, 1815. William IV - 'Sailor Bill', or 'Silly Billy', was an elderly man when he succeeded brother George. (There was another brother, Edward who had died earlier, leaving a daughter, Victoria). His reign saw a number of reforming laws, the most notable being the Reform Bill 1832 which extended the franchise and did away with corrupt electoral practices. The grand-daughter of George III and daughter of Edward, Duke of Kent and his wife, Victoria of Saxe-Coburg, Queen Victoria holds the record - so far- of England's longest reign, and what changes the period witnessed! She succeeded her uncle William IV when she was just 17 and her accession meant the separation of the crowns of Great Britain and Hanover, for under Salic Law a woman could not succeed in Hanover. (Her uncle, Ernest, Duke of Cumberland, succeeded his brother William IV as King of Hanover). This was a time of enormous progress and growth in many areas: industrial, humanitarian (Dickens' books, founding of Parish Schools), the arts, as well as matters overseas. In 1877 Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India, a title held by her descendants until India/Pakistan's independence in 1947. With her much-loved husband, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, the Prince Consort, she set a high and strict moral code for the age by their hard work and conscientiousness. After his death in 1861 of typhoid fever the Queen withdrew from public life for around 7 years until persuaded back into public duties by her friend and Prime Minister, Benjamin Disraeli. In so doing she firmly established the role of the constitutional monarch in British political life. There was much sadness at her death, in 1901, and a new century was to see the reduction in Britain's global influence, the decline of Empire and the rise of the New World. THE HOUSE OF SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA - 1910 - 1917 TOP King Edward VII inherited his father's name and his mother's crown and was the last full British member of the House of Saxe-Cobourg-Gotha. He came to the throne at the age of 59 having won some popularity for his wit and charm, but also much criticism for his playboy lifestyle as Prince of Wales. His natural charm and political astuteness cleared the way for an end to the long political estrangement with France with the signing of the Entente Cordiale in 1909, as well as helping to improve relations with other European powers. THE HOUSE OF WINDSOR King George V's reign saw both the Parliament Act of 1911 which greatly reduced the powers of the House of Lords and the awesome horrors of World War I. This period of great sacrifice was to focus people's minds on many new ideas; the rise of Communism in the East (reflected at home in the growth of the socialist movement), a call for better working and living conditions and a demand for women's suffrage. The new militant 'working class' found their voice in the recently founded Labour Party, fast becoming a rival to the established Conservative and Liberal parties who had dominated political life since the early C18th. In 1917, when practically a whole generation of young British/Irish men were dying in the trenches fighting Germans, the King was advised that the Germanic family name of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha was hardly appropriate. During a discussion with the Prime Minister, the King's secretary suggested 'Windsor', the king is reported to have said that it had 'a nice ring to it' or something along those lines, so a decision was made to change the Royal name. The Prime Minister, Lloyd George arranged a special one day passage through both Houses of Parliament for the Bill making the change legal to be approved. Another consequence of that terrible price was the resurgence of the Irish Nationalist Movement; after a short period of bloody conflict and brutal but futile attempts to end the 'rebellion' the formation of the Irish Free State on 6th December 1921 was agreed. The first Labour Government under Ramsey Macdonald was elected in 1924, the Liberal party having been squeezed into third place where it has remained to this day. George V's death in 1936 brought another constitutional crisis as Britain entered a new phase in its' path towards becoming a modern 'Constitutionalised Democracy'. King Edward VIII was the eldest son of King George V and Mary of Teck. He reigned for only 325 days before abdicating over the issue of his marriage to an American divorcee, Mrs Wallis Warfield Simpson. Albert, middle name George, now King George VI was the younger brother of Edward VIII who succeeded on his brother's abdication on 12th December 1936. The 'Abdication Crisis' as it came to be known, was but a brief distraction from the events in mainland Europe where the rise of Communism in the East was being challenged by even darker forces in the form of the New Fascist dictator states of Germany and Italy. An illustration of how warfare would be made in the future was provided when Gen. Franco the Nationalist leader of Spain invoked the assistance of the German and Italian airforces to bomb his Republican or Loyalist enemies into submission during the Spanish Civil War. The most infamous example, the terror bombing of the Basque town of Guernica, shocked the world by this killing of innocent civilians but the event pales into insignificance when compared with that which would befall the citizens of Warsaw, Leningrad, Stalingrad, Moscow, London, Coventry, Dresden and Berlin a few years later. One voice alone railed about the great dangers these forces posed to the civilised world - that of Winston Churchill. Unfortunately, the memories of the terrible losses of World War I clouded judgements throughout Europe (and in America, too; although her participation and losses had been very much smaller). 'Appeasement' was the policy adopted by most leaders when trying to deal with Hitler. As Churchill stated, 'an appeaser is a man who feeds a crocodile, hoping it will eat him last.' In May 1940 King George VI sent for Winston Churchill on the recommendation of outgoing Prime Minister Chamberlain, whose appeasement policies had so signally failed. The King formally invited Churchill to form a National War Cabinet and the great man's hour had finally come, at the age of 65! With the help of his wife, Queen Elizabeth, the late Queen Mother, the Queen's father overcame his natural shyness and nervous stammer. (An ecellent movie, The King's Speech, deals very well with this subject). During the Second World War the King and his family with Churchill led the way in maintaining high morale during very troubled times. Following the war, the Labour administration of Clement Attlee brought independence to many former colonies. Great Britain was not quite so 'Great' anymore, she was bankrupt, massively in debt to the USA, and being forced to come to terms with her new less-influential role in the World. When the King died suddenly in 1952, his beloved eldest daughter 'Lillibet' became our present Monarch, Queen Elizabeth II. Like all but two of those who precede her on this list, the present sovereign was crowned at Westminster Abbey, on 2nd June 1953. For most people she has 'done a good job'. By combining dignity, wisdom and the ability to accept many sometimes humiliating changes in protocol and the public perception of the sovereign's role in a modern society she has earned much affection, respect and sympathy. The Queen has seen eleven Prime Ministers come and go, and observed her country's role remain, despite the much smaller scale of British territorial possessions, an important one on the world stage. As Head of The Commonwealth*, she has taken her duties very seriously (it's said to be her chief ambition to see it continue to strengthen as a force for good in the world), and she continues to work to influence the Heads of the 54 Member Nations to strive for greater understanding and warmth between its' peoples - who make up almost a third of the world's population. *Countries founded or ruled by Britain over the last 300 years or so, most of whom have become Independant during her reign, and that of her father. Author's note: These pages are constantly being added to so if you have any requests for subjects for future inclusion please tell me here. Where an opinion is offered please be aware that it is the personal opinion of the writer. My aim is to present UK/Irish history as honestly and accurately as I can, but if you find an opinion or fact that you disagree with tell me so that I can put it right, if necessary. RGR Last updated: May 11, 2011
|
